ࡱ>  @ qbjbj 6>h0  MMM84NlN OOOOORRRGIIIIIIRҶI cZRZR@ccI OO^fffc6 O OGfcGffp OtO p Mej8St0,fe|fp  f oRPXfd\D_ARRRII  D6X@ f  X@ Key questions and ideasKey factsLesson 1: Where is the world is the ice?Where is all the ice? There are different kinds of glacier and they change over time Glaciers change size over different timescales In the distant past, ice sheets used to be bigger Why did the earth used to be colder?Antarctica 90% of Earths ice is found here. The ice here is sometimes over 4000-5000 metres deep. North America (including Alaska) One of the worlds youngest glaciers is growing here, in the crater left when Mt St Helens exploded in 1980. The ice here contains perfectly preserved woolly mammoths and other animals from 10,000 years ago. South America Scientists are worried about the massive glaciers found in the Andes mountains. They think global warming is causing them to melt more quickly. Greenland Greenland is really shaped a bit like a doughnut but the outline of the ice prevents us from seeing this on most maps. If all the ice melted, world sea-level would rise by 7 metres! Greenland, like Antarctica, is very important global ice store. Europe Climate change means Europes glaciers are melting so quickly that they may have vanished by 2050. Asia (including Russia) Hundreds of millions of people depend on summer meltwater running off the Himalayas (where Mount Everest is found) for their drinking water supplies! Africa (and Middle East) In Africa, there are glaciers on the equator! Kilimanjaro is so high that it is still cold enough for ice. Australasia (Australia and New Zealand) New Zealands glaciers were the setting for the films of Lord of the Rings (teachers tip: show an extract from the DVD of the film if you have access to one, or image search using Google) 85% of the worlds ice is found in the giant Antarctic ice sheet This ice sheet would cause the earths oceans to rise by 7 metres if it melted Ice caps cover less area than ice sheets. The Himalayan ice cap is home to Mount Everest, the worlds highest mountain Individual valley glaciers like those found in Switzerland are much more accessible to people and attract skiers and snow-boarders A corrie glacier is a small glacier that has developed high up on a sheltered mountain-side A glacier can start life as a tiny snow-patch is only metres wide that only just barely survives the warmer months of summer. However, once a small amount of snow has survived the whole year, glaciers can grow very quickly. The glacier formed in the crater at Mt St Helens is less than 30 years old but already well over 200m deep in places! Whenever snowfall exceeds rates of melting, a substance called firn develops as snow is compressed to eventually become dense ice. This is helped by melting and re-freezing (the same way ice on roads sometimes develops) so that most (but not all) air is removed. Rivers of ice begin to flow downhill under gravity. Glaciers move forwards into lowland regions where warmer air brings melting. The size of the glacier is thus a function of snowfall and air temperatures. Melting glaciers are observed to be retreating. Their front end (the snout) recedes up-valley. This is happening to many glaciers today on account of climate change. However, the mass of ice is still moving downhill. But melting is taking place in lowland areas at a faster ice than new ice (from fresh snowfall in highland areas) moves down slope to replace it. It is like an escalator that is having pieces removed from it. Although it never stops moving downwards, the length of escalator is getting smaller as pieces are taken away. This is a complex area for non-specialist teachers who may want to consult textbooks aimed at an older A-level audience. There have been many cold phases called ice ages. Some scientists believe that the coldest chapter of Planet Earths took place 700 million years ago. They describe it as the Snowball earth era. Our last major cold period, the Pleistocene, started 1.8 million years ago and ended just 10,000 years before the present day. Since then, conditions have been warmer. This most recent 10,000 years is called the Holocene. The Pleistocene and the Holocene are part of the Quaternary Period of Earth history. Gifted and talented geographers might want to know more about the scientific explanations for past climate change, e.g. Milankovitch curves. According to Milankovitch (a Serbian physicist), every 100,000 years or so the Earths orbit changes from a circular to elliptical (egg-shaped) pattern. This changes how much sunlight we receive. He also identified that the Earths axis moves and wobbles about, changing over 41,000 and 21,000 year cycles. This also effects how much sunlight is received. Put all of this together and the history of ice ages can be explained! Four propositions: which is definitely FALSE? Earths orbit around the sun changes shape Thought to be true. This is called the Milankovitch Theory and it states that there are changes in the earths orbit that sometimes take it further form the sun, resulting in cooler temperatures on earth. Mountains grow too high Could be true. The earths continents move and occasionally collide with one another (this is called plate tectonics). When India collided with Asia, land was forced up to form the Himalayas. A complex series of events followed that changed the earths climate and may have caused cooling. The sun gets too spotty Known to be true. Regions of the suns surface sometimes drop to a lower temperature causing dark spots to appear on its surface. This results in slightly less sunlight reaching earth which can cause cooling. Too many volcanoes Known to be true. major explosions lower global temperature due to high-altitude ash clouds reducing incoming solar radiation. Too much carbon dioxide is added to the air Definitely false. The opposite is true. Past periods of cold coincide with times of less carbon dioxide rather than too much (as is becoming the case in modern times). Lesson 2: Why are our glaciers shrinking? Who is the iceman and why was he murdered? What is happening to the worlds ice why is it melting? How does ice tell us the secret of why it is melting?The iceman was found in an Austrian snowfield in 1991. Covered by ice for 5000 years, melting ice revealed his body to explorers. As the ice melted, a man was revealed who had lived long ago, shedding light on his life and finally his violent murder. We now know that when The Icemans body was discovered, he had with him a copper bladed axe. So rare and expensive was this item that scientists feel that his death could not have been a random attack or his killers would have stolen it. Instead the evidence suggests that his murder was likely to be political. The mans age and weapon indicate he was powerful, and as so little preparation went into his journey it is likely that he left his home in a hurry trying to escape from danger. The case study shows that the ice has stories to tell. It also gives us a clue that some of the worlds ice is melting. The worlds ice is melting, quite simply, as a result of climate change. Rising temperatures in the earths atmosphere are being caused predominantly by the burning of fossil fuels coal, oil and natural gas in the operation of cars, planes, heating and lighting our homes, and so on. This releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere which acts as an insulating layer very much like a greenhouse trapping solar insolation and raising temperatures at the earths surface. Plants and trees absorb carbon dioxide for the process of photosynthesis, so are natural carbon sinks. As a result, deforestation contributes to the problem. During the 20th Century, surface temperatures rose on average 1C. As a result of this increase, snow and ice cover has decreased, releasing freshwater into the oceans. In the same timeframe global sea levels have risen between 10 and 20 cm. Without significant policy changes, global mean temperature is predicted to increase between 1.4 and 5.8C over the next century, with an equivalent sea level rise of between 9 and 88 cm globally. In terms of the shrinking of glaciers, the impacts of climate change are being felt most severely at the poles. Rising temperatures are causing the ice caps to melt in both Arctic and Antarctic regions. The Arctic has lost a third of its ice since the 1970s and 2007 was the worst year on record for ice cap loss. Some scientists are predicting further acceleration in melting, and have even suggested that there may be ice-free summers in the Arctic as soon as 2030. As a result of the melting of polar ice caps, sea level is rising globally, creating a flood risk for coastal areas and many world cities, such as New York and London, both of which are located on the flood plain. According to an Australian study, sea levels have risen by almost 2 centimetres every year since 1870, in line with temperature rises over the same period. It is the ice itself that has helped us to solve the mystery of why the ice is melting. Trapped air that is found in very old ice is analysed by scientists to determine how carbon dioxide levels have changed over time. Ice cores are cross-sections drilled through the snow and ice. They allow us to look back in time. Over the past few decades, several long cores of ice between 3 and 4 km long have been pulled up from the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets to investigate long-term climatic change. Parts of the Antarctic ice are an amazing 500,000 years old. The ice was taken to a laboratory and melted, releasing bubbles of ancient air. Changes in air content especially hydrogen were then analysed, showing scientists how temperatures have warmed and cooled over time. The pockets of air trapped within the ice enable scientists to reconstruct the gaseous composition of the atmosphere in the past, notably the concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2). The ice can also be examined for concentrations of dust, volcanic ash and various chemicals all giving evidence of what was in the atmosphere at various times in the distant past.Lesson 3: Living with glaciersWhat is the difference between a hazard and a resource? How have people and ecosystems adapted to a hazardous life in glacial conditions? What opportunities do glaciers bring for people? Why are ski resorts under threat? Why are they wrapping the Gurschen glacier in plastic?When people can use physical geography to help them, we say that we have found a resource. However, when physical geography harms us, we call it a hazard. Examples for discussion include: Rivers (they bring floods, but also useful in countless ways) Coastlines (the risks of floods and erosion are countered by economic benefits) Volcanoes (they are dangerous yet provide opportunities for tourism and farming) Windy or stormy conditions (they destroy property but also power wind turbines thus being a good example of a sustainable and renewable resource) How do glaciers function as both hazard and resource? Glacial regions bring a range of avalanching and climatic hazards. Deep ice brings the hazard of dangerous deep crevasses (in parts of Antarctica, the sheet of ice is nearly five kilometres deep). Climatic conditions are hazardous without adaptations and technology: Coldest temperature ever recorded. The coldest temperature ever recorded is -81C in Yukon, Canada. Antarctica has a recorded low of -67C. Darkest cold place. Alert Bay, on the northeast coast of Canada is located at 82 degrees north. It receives no sun for 50 days a year. Animals and plants have adapted to life in various ways: White fur as camouflage. Some animals, like polar bears and snow hairs, have evolved white fur so that they cannot easily be seen against winter snow. This helps them hunt, or else helps them hide from hunters. Caribou have two layers of fur. The caribou is a type of deer whose fur helps it to survive the bitter cold in icy regions. People have also adapted to life in polar and glacial regions in different ways: Housing. High-pitched steep roofs allow snow to slide off, while triple-glazed windows keep the cold at bay. In areas of permafrost (frozen ground), houses are raised on stilts. Clothing. Traditionally, people living in Arctic regions favoured coats made of caribou skin and sealskin boots. Goose down was used as a lining. Now they also wear modern man-made textiles. Hunting. Native Alaskans have always relied on hunting and fishing for food rather than farming of the land. This is because of the frozen ground and short growing season for crops. Industry. In the North Slope of Alaska, large oil fields are found. Commercial fishing takes place offshore. In many cold places, skiing and snowboarding tourism takes place. Glacial meltwater especially from the Himalayas plays a vital role in providing water supplies for people. Indeed, threatened water supplies in Asia give climate change experts their greatest cause for concern. Half of the worlds population lives in this region. Major rivers in China, India and Vietnam are fed by seasonal melting of Himalayan glaciers. Every summer, icy water pours off the Tibetan plateau. Flows from this massive hydrological store feed the Yellow River, the Mekong and other major rivers. As long as new glacier ice accumulates each winter, cities and ecosystems in the region are guaranteed a sustainable water supply. However, a much warmer climate would lead to permanent melting and ultimately the disappearance of Himalayan glaciers. Billions of people would experience severely reduced water supplies. Referring back to earlier lessons (where the glacial system was examined), students should come to a clear understanding that summer melt-water flows are part of the normal functioning of a glacier and are replaced each winter by new snowfall under normal conditions and this must not be confused with the long-term and potentially irreversible melting that climate change may bring. Once the ice has gone altogether, experts fear that there will be no fresh meltwater to feed rivers. Skiing is vital to Alpine economies, and yet glacial snouts are increasingly mapped as retreating up-valley in Switzerland and elsewhere. Many ski resorts are threatened by climate change. Rock falls are also becoming more common in Alpine glaciers as climate warms and ice thins, causing mountainsides to collapse. This has been reported as a particular concern for the Matterhorn. Global warming has meant that since 1850 the Swiss Alps have lost more than 1,000 glaciers, and geographers at Zurich University predict that within 30 years, 70% of the remaining glaciers in Switzerland may have disappeared. The Gurschen glacier, near Andermatt, has lost around 20 metres of ice since 1990. To prevent further melting of this glacier, a revolutionary technique has been adopted. At the end of the ski season, over 3,000 square feet of the glacier is covered in insulating re-usable PVC foam. It is hoped that this will protect the surface layers of the glacier from heat and rain during the summer months, thus preventing further melting. Swiss scientists hope that the PVC foam will mimic the natural effect of rock debris which falls from the steep valley sides onto the glacier and acts as an insulating blanket, protecting the glacier from the suns rays and reducing melting. After one year, the technique had reduced the melting of the Gurschen glacier by one third. However, it is extremely expensive and cannot be sustained. The solution is to address the causes of global warming, rather than its effects. Lesson 4: What landforms of erosion will disappearing ice reveal?What is the difference between weathering and erosion? How does ice erosion work? What are the main landforms of glacial erosion? Where did the roche moutonne get its name?Weathering is the breaking-apart of rocks in a particular place. You can see the effects of weathering all around you, where roads and pavements become cracked and damaged due to their exposure to the weather and other types of damage. Erosion is a much wider term. It describes both the breaking apart of rocks and also their removal, for instance by a moving ice sheet. When you look at a valley in the landscape, you see the effects of erosion. A gap has been created, perhaps by the action of running water and the local weather. However, the broken-down rocks have also been removed, leaving the valley shape. Key weathering processes include: Rainwater freezes at night in small hair-line cracks and widens them. Water expands by 10% when it freezes to form ice. Over time, cracks get wider and wider. Daytime, night-time and seasonal temperature changes cause minerals in the tarmac to expand and contract as they are heated and cooled - which can be very damaging. Rainwater contains mild acids that can dissolve some minerals over long periods of time. Tree roots are growing underneath the tarmac and they break it apart. This is biological weathering Humans walk on the path every day and their trampling damages it. Key ice erosion processes include: As the ice moves over a rock surface, it freezes around loose or weak sections, pulling them away. This is called plucking (more precisely, it involves pressure melting of ice at the base of a glacier and subsequent re-freezing around disintegrating bedrock. It is a more advanced scientific concept and need not be explained at this higher level unless students require further stretch and challenge). Once pieces of jagged rock are being carried by the ice, they have a sandpaper effect on other land surfaces, helping to cause further destruction. This is called abrasion. Ice creates unique landforms in upland areas. Glacial places in the world are home to unique landforms that give them a special character that is not found elsewhere. Exposure of these special landforms is on-going, with some revealed at the end of the last ice age and others only becoming uncovered in recent years as ice has started to melt again. Examples can be seen throughout the UK that were exposed 10,000 years ago when ice melted. Some of the key landforms include: U-shaped valley (a deep, wide valley created by ice erosion that replaces the V-shaped valley associated with fluvial erosion in a more temperate environment). Corrie (an amphitheatre-shaped hollow found on mountain sides especially those with a north-facing aspect; snow accumulates well where there is less melting by sunlight and rotational movement of the ice mass has over-deepened this section of mountain-side) Arte (a sharp ridge that results from two corries forming on adjacent slopes) Pyramidal peak (a distinctive-shaped mountain whose sides are marked with a number of corries) Treatment of additional erosional landforms may be possible if time allows (e.g. hanging valley, truncated spurs). The erosion processes of abrasion and plucking are very important in the creation of these landforms. In addition, ice moves in different ways from water - which can sometimes result in the scouring effect that allows deep rock basins to be created on the sides of mountains (corries). Freeze-thaw weathering creates the rock-falls that cover active glaciers with the mantle of debris that can be seen in photographs. The roche moutonne is a resistant and tough outcrop of rock found on the floor of a U-shaped valley that a glacier once occupied. You can see scratches called striations on it, caused by moving ice. In French, roche moutonne means sheep-backed rock or fleecy rock. This glacially-eroded landform is thought to resemble a grazing sheep. Lesson 5: How will melting glaciers affect people living in the UK?What happens to sea levels when glaciers melt and water runs into the sea? How will our place be affected by sea level rise? How will sea level rise in other places impact on life in our place?Scientists think world sea-level could rise by more than half a metre this century. Primarily this is because sea water is getting warmer and expanding (this is known as thermal expansion of the oceans). But polar ice is starting to melt and adding more water to the oceans - this will greatly increase in importance as a cause of sea-level rise during the course of the next century. The sea-level rise will be most apparent in places where the land is sinking too. In southeast England, the land is sinking as a result of post-Pleistocene isostatic readjustment. In parts of Bangladesh, the Ganges delta is naturally subsiding due to its depositional nature and sea-level rise of over 1 metre are projected perhaps by mid-century. Because physical geography connects different places together, the melting of glaciers in distant places can impact on people living in the UK in varied ways. In an interconnected world, we may all suffer impacts caused by melting ice elsewhere, and settlements may be affected by sea level rises in diverse and different ways. For locations close to sea-level, lower-impact scenarios of 1-5 metres will have very significant results. For places further inland (e.g. on inland river flood plains), the effects of a much more extreme sea-level rise could be thought about (e.g. a total loss of land-based ice could result in a 70m rise). If there is no risk, then the nearest threatened coastal settlement can be substituted. Protection can also be considered. In some sparsely populated areas, the costs of protection against sea level rise might outweigh the benefits. The Environment Agency website ( HYPERLINK "http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk" www.environment-agency.gov.uk) contains a postcode-searchable flood risk map which can be used to investigate the risk of flooding in locations in the UK. This question touches on issues of interconnectedness and interdependency. We currently rely on trade imports from around the globe, and can find a whole range of these products in our local shops. Sea level rise and the consequences of flooding and/or mass migration in producing regions could have an impact on the range and types of products that we can obtain locally. Similarly, we may start to be constrained in terms of our potential holiday destinations. Venice is a very popular tourist resort with around 7 million visitors each year. However, the resort is very low-lying (0m above sea level), built on unstable subsiding marshland and already floods several times a year. Already a combination of subsidence and sea level rise means that the city has lost 23 cm to the sea since 1900. How will the city fare with increased sea levels? A further impact on our local area as a result of sea level rise elsewhere in the world may be an influx of climate change refugees, people who are forced to emigrate from their countries as they become uninhabitable. One estimate puts the potential number of people who may be forced to move at 200 million. Where will they go? Will countries place limits on immigration? Many of the same questions and issues arising from immigration today will be relevant under these circumstances as well. Lesson 6: How will melting glaciers affect people living in other countries?Where in the world will the greatest impact of climate change and melting glaciers be felt? What is the global threat of glaciers melting? Who is most at risk from glaciers melting and sea levels rising?Melting glaciers have several different effects. For example, the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas will affect the drinking supplies of the millions of people who rely on meltwater rivers. In addition, when sea levels rise, people living close to sea level will have their homes flooded. This will have a major impact on the hundreds of millions of people living on low-lying land in Bangladesh. Out of the four places suggested: Asia, Africa, the Arctic and the Amazon, the impact of climate change and melting glaciers is likely to be felt most in Asia, because this is the region that has the highest population. The key milestones for a possible future sea-level rise timeline are: World sea-level is expected to rise 60-70cm by 2100; but this is mostly due to thermal expansion (as the sea gets warmer, it expands). Significant glacier melting in Artic, Antarctic, Himalayan and Alpine regions could produce another metre of sea-level rise by around 2200. If greenhouse gas emissions keep rising, the Greenland and Antarctica ice sheets could one day melt completely, bringing 7m and 60m rises respectively. However, this might take hundreds of years. Poorer places and people are more vulnerable to the effects of sea level rise than richer places and people because they lack the capacity to change as well. Sea level rises over the next hundred years or so are more likely to cause mass migrations than mass mortality because the timescale for sea level rise is such a long one that in the main, changes are likely to be gradual. It is unknown where the worlds poorest people will migrate to in order to escape rising sea levels and what the consequences of this movement will be. The IPCC (Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change) has projected major eustatic changes in sea-level over the next 100 years if CO2 levels continue to climb towards the danger level of 550 parts per million (ppm). It has long been recognised that any sea level rise will have a disproportionately bigger effect on some countries than others. The worst effects will be felt by those that are: (1) coastal and low-lying (thus at greatest risk of flooding) (2) poor and highly-populated (thus lacking a capacity to cope). Bangladesh is certainly worth discussing. It has a GDP per capita of just $1,300 and a very low Human Development Index score (the nation is ranked 140th). Bangladesh is also a terribly vulnerable country, with much of its land close to sea level on the Ganges delta, where the land is naturally sinking and subsiding in any case. Many other nations are at serious risk of sea-level rise. The poorest of these lack the resources needed to adapt to climate change. In a high-emissions future, some places could be abandoned entirely: The Maldives. Most of the tiny islands that make up the Maldives are less than 2 metres above sea level. The 300,000 people that live there may soon become climate change refugees. In 2008, the Maldives President asked neighbours India and Sri Lanka if he could buy some of their land! The Pacific island state of Tuvalu. Half of Tuvalus 10,000 residents live within three metres of todays sea-level. Many islanders think they may soon need to migrate elsewhere.   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